Problem Solver

TEACHING FOR THINKING AND PROBLEM – BASED

Thinking Skills and Processes
Problem solving is natural to young children because the word is new them. They exhibit curiosity, intelligence, and flexibility as they face new situations. The challenge … is to build on children’s innate problem solving inclinations and to preserve and encourage a disposition that values problem solving. ( Trafton & Midgett, 2001, p. 532)
As you teach, you want your student to think both critically about the subject matter. How can you ask questions to get them to think deeply? Can a thinking skill taught in one subject be used in another subject? Do your students think about their own thinking? Do you value their opinions and encourage them to take risks and try new ideas?
Objectives
You will be able to
1. Give reasons why thinking skills should be taught within the context of a subject.
2. Define and give examples of learning
3. List examples of process and product learning
4. Give examples of the and use specific approaches to teaching thinking
5. List and explain the advantages of higher order thinking.
6. List and define thinking operations and core thinking skills.
7. Plan ways to encourage the development of dispositions needed for critical thinking
8. Describe ways students can be taught critical and creative thinking skills.
9. Teach a cognitive skill and a cognitive process in a microteaching or classroom lesson.

They way teachers have been expected to teach has changed from transmission of knowledge ( Knowing content) to interpretation of knowledge ( thinking about content), that is, that three should be much more emphasis on specifically teaching cognitive strategies. In other words, thinking skills and processes are highly important “content” too.
Recent focus on teacher effectiveness has been on acquisition of thinking skills ( Person, Kromrey, Borg, & Lewis, 1990, p.5) Research shows.
Simply increasing teachers’ awareness of the to teach students how to think without providing training in the specific operations of teaching thinking has little change of significantly classroom performance… educators must systematically undertake specific training in higher order teaching in both preservice and inservice program. (p.10)

Eggen and kauchak (2001) believe that best approach to teach for thinking occurs when it is taught explicitly and within the context of the regular curriculum ( p.343). much earlier, Resnick (1987) said, “ Higher order order skill must suffuse the school program from kindergarten on the in every subject matter” (p.48). An obstacle to the development of thinking growing demand for schools to teach more and facts and information. “ The idea that knowledge must be acquired first an that its applications to reasoning and problem solving can be delayed is a persistent one is a persistent one in educational thinking” (p.48). arguably, the U.S No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), with its emphasis on standardized tests, tempts teachers to underemphasize teaching for thinking .
Bagan 1
A. Planing for Teaching a Thinking a Skill
1. Specify skill label and definition
2. Determine the rules or steps in use of skill
3. Specify use of skill in the content studies
4. Decide how to model, explain, demo the skill
5. Decide how to provide guided/unguided practice
6. Decide how to evaluate
7. Decide how to transfer skill to other subjects
8. Decide how to transfer skill to life situations

B. Core thinking Skills ( Marzano et el)
Focusing
Information gathering
Remembering
Organizing
Analyzing
Generating
Integrating
Evaluating

C. Thinking creatively (Rothstein)
Welcome class climate
Encourage exploration
Provide school time
Encourage broad interests
Foster the belief students
Can be more creative
Teach what’s involved in
Being creative
Encourage acquisition and creative use of information

D. Critical Thinking Procedures
Distinguish between facts and value claims
Discover reliability of sources
Check accuracy of statements
Distinguish between valid and invalid claims
Distinguish between what is irrelevant and irrelevant
Detect biases
Identify assumptions
Note the ambiguous/equivocal
Recognize inconsistencies
Determine argument strength

E. Thinking Operation
Comparing
Classifying
Observing
Imagining
Hypothesizing
Criticizing
Collecting/organizing
Summarizing
Coding
Interpreting
Bayer (1998) notes that teachers can provide a classroom learning environment that makes thinking possible and students willing to engage in it. You can make the invisible substance of thinking visible for students. This can provide students with an explicit guide and support for when they encounter difficult or complex thinking operations. Teacher should integrate instruction in thinking as they teach subject matter.
Bagan 2
A. The PBL classroom
Teacher is facilitator/co-leaner/mentor/guide
Faculty work in teams
Faculty structure is flexible
Students take responsibility/create partnerships
Structured problem is basis for course/motivation through real-life problems
Students initiative and supportive
“one right answer” approach is discouraged
Students evaluate themselves

B. Creative a PBL Learning Experience
1. Identify a problem
2. Connect problem to student’s world for authentic opportunities
3. Organize subject matter around the problem
4. Students defines learning experience and plan how to solve problem
5. Encourage collaboration through learning teams
6. Students show results through a product or performance

C. PBL Characteristic
• Students centered
• Small groups
• Teacher as facilitator
• Problems as focus and stimulus for learning
• Problems vehicles for developing problem – solving skills
• Gain new information through self – directed learning

Important of Thinking Skills and Processes
There is much controversy about the term intelligence. It is not easily quantified , and the debate about effects on intelligence of nature and of environment is ongoing. Intelligence in increasingly viewed as a set of thinking skills and processes that can be separately taught and learned. Of course, thinking skills are never “content” free; they are generic to, and can be applied to, all school subject and use in daily life. While some believe “thinking” is a matter of innate intelligence, many authorities acknowledge that “thinking” should be taught directly. They argue that there never is enough time to teach all the information that could usefully be taught and that we should reduce the time spent on teaching specific information and focus instead on teaching skills. This is in harmony with the view of the teacher as a “learning facilitator” rather than an “information disseminator. “ The teacher, therefore, needs to facilitate transfer from one potion of a school subject to another, from one school subject to another, and from school to life. Perhaps the most important aspect of direct teaching of thinking as a skill is that it builds a youngster’s self-image as a “thinker.” Importantly, problem-based learning has been developed to help students acquire thinking skills and processes. In problem-based learning, students are presented with meaningful (authentic) situations to develop investigative, inquiry, and decision-making skills.
Also important is meta – cognition (thinking about one’s thinking). Kuiper (2002), in a study of nursing practice and education, believes, “ One learned, metacognition supports lifelong reflective thinking in divergent situations, enables one to handle ambiguity, assists with problem solving, promotes responsibility for actions, and fosters development of self-confidence for rapid decision making” )p.78)

Uses specific instruction in the nature and use of thinking skill and processes
Specific instruction in the nature and use of thinking skills and processes; emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking skills; objectives and evaluation reflect emphasis on thinking skill acquisition; ask many “ why” and “ what if” questions.
Incorporates key thinking operations and core thinking skills into teaching
Key thinking operations such as comparing and classifying are a key part of teaching, as are the core thinking skills such as organizing and analyzing.

Ensure that students use critical thinking procedures
Ensure students are familiar with the difference between facts and values claims, and that they check for bias, validity, and relevance in their research
Sole focus on facts and information of an area of study; “ right answer” emphasis; no opportunity for problem solving or critical thinking.

Teaching tends to focus on basic factual information that is accepted at face value without organizing material into new patterns through comparison, classification, and analysis.

Students tend to accept all information at face value; little attempt by students to check material for bias, validity, and relevance; students unaware of critical thinking procedures.

Organizing Knowledge and learning
Learner can handle new information better if they understand how to organize it into patterns. Some approaches examined later in this chapter are coding and classification systems. Comparing and contrasting, and sequencing.
Schooling must help students acquire strategies to organize information. Learners need ways to accomplish academic tasks. They need learning strategies (operating steps or patterns) to infer, predict, summarize, or hypothesize. Learning is strategic, in that there can be procedure or ways of executing a skill.
When students use certain learning strategies well, memory and comprehension are improved. Pressley and Harris ( 1990, p .32) provide example of effective strategies : summarization, imagery (creating an internal visual image of the content), activating prior knowledge (relating what is know to new content), self-questioning (composing questions that cut across different parts of the content), and question answering (teaching students to analyze questions as a part of attempting to answer ( teaching students to analyze question as a part of attempting to answer them). When students can carry out a certain strategy out a certain learning strategy well, they should be helped to learn when to use the strategy in new contexts across the curriculum – teaching for transfer.

The Importance of Thinking Well and Wisely
Sternberg (2003) suggests that the conventional approach to teaching creates “pseudo-experts” – student with expertise that does not mirror what is needed in real – world situations. He says we should with expertise that does not mirror what is needed in real-world- situations. He says we should teach for wisdom, “ teaching them to think in the ways experts do” (p.5). He suggests that teaching for analytical thinking means encouraging students to analyze, critique, judge, compare and contrast, evaluate, and assess; teaching for creative thinking means encouraging students to create, invent, discover, “imagine if,” “suppose that, “ and predict; and teaching for practical thinking means encouraging students to apply, use, put into practice, implement, employ, and render practical what they know (p.5)
In preparing students to think like experts, we “should teach children not only to think well, but also wisely” (p.7) he claims, “ those who have not learned to think wisely exhibit five characteristics fallacies in thinking” ( p.7):
1. The fallacy of unrealistic optimism (people think that they are so smart they do not think through what they do)
2. The fallacy of egocentrism ( people think the word centers around the. Wisdom requires one to know what one knows and does not know as well as what can be known and cannot ne know.)
3. The fallacy of omniscience (People feel that they are not only experts in their fields, but also all-knowing about pretty much everything).
4. The fallacy of omnipotence (The belief that if knowledge is power, then omniscience is total power. People who are in positions of power imagine themselves to be all-powerful, they can do what they want).
5. The fallacy of invulnerability (People’s view that if they are all-knowing and all powerful, they can do what they want.)

“Wisdom, “ Sternberg says, “ is the use of successful intelligence and experience to ward the attainment of a common good” (p.7). This involves balancing three kinds of interests that should be informed by values; (1) Intrapersonal (one’s own); (2) Interpersonal (other people’s); (3) extra personal (more than personal – institutional).
Schools, then, should “ consider the development of expertise in wisdom to be an important goal” (p.7). this is because knowledge does not in itself create wisdom; wisdom provides a way to make important decisions and render important judgments, and wisdom represents an avenue to creating a better, more harmonious word ( p.7). Sternberg concludes that “ an augmented conception of expertise takes into account wise and intelligent use of knowledge” (p.8)

Classic Teaching Approaches
Just as a traditional architect might borrow the fundamental elements and signature styling from a master architect, such as Frank Lloyd Wright, educators borrow from master craftspeople. They borrow from master cognitive psychologists and neurobiologists who have helped shape structures for the intellect. ( Fogarty, 1999, p.76)

Useful approaches are available to the novice teacher who wishes teach thinking skills. The following names will be familiar. John Dewey, an American educator, was ahead of his time in suggesting that teachers must encourage the thinking and reflection of the only through the stimulation of the child’s interaction with the word. Dewey wrote, “ I believe that the only true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by demands of the social situations in which he finds himself” (1993, p.1). his writings make significant reading even today. Jean Piaget, a psychologist, recorded his observations of how children think. Many accept his model of child development and learning. To Piaget, the child cannot engage in certain intellectual tasks until he or she is psychologically ready. Children construct meaning – a concept further developed by Vygotsky and Bruner. Children are innately curious, love learning and asking questions. Lev vygotsky (1978), a Russian psychologist, emphasized the social aspect of learning. He said, “ Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice; first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level,: first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the functions originate as actual relationships between individuals” (p.57). Vygotsky is known for the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the relationship between a student’s actual and potential levels of development.

Other significant approaches to teaching thinking skills were development by Bruner, Bloom, Wasserman, and Marzano

Bruner : Content and Process
As early as 1967, Jerome Bruner introduced a theory of instruction that examined the relationship between content and process. Process is the cluster of diverse operations that surround the acquisition and use of knowledge. Through process, we use knowledge as a system for learning in contrast to only the nature of knowledge, but also the process of acquiring it. Instruction should include the steps ( stages, patterns, and behaviors) necessary to attain concepts or generalizations or to perform skills. Students need to learn the knowledge acquisition process to function well in a changing world.
Kearsley (2004) states that for Bruner, “Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge, “ and that “as far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e. Socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of understanding . “
For Bruner , “ a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of reward and punishments.
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information” ( Kearsley, 2004)
Note again the emphasis on the thinking skills elements of discovery, active dialogue, building on what has been learned, and learner readiness.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy has been the most prevalent model for the teaching and learning of thinking skills. Many studies have used this taxonomy, hundreds of publications have referred to it, and many courses of study have been and are based on it. Many educators find the taxonomy useful as an instructional and evaluation tool. The taxonomy is described in Chapter 5.
Some authorities have concerns about Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy and believe that teaching thinking should be done differently. Some instructional experts do not hold the nation that “ knowledge” is low level and rote, but that knowledge often can be viewed in a more comprehensive way, it may be process or product, and declarative, procedural, or conditional. Few authorities now, including those who believe in Bloom’s taxonomy, think the levels are strictly hierarchical or that learning must occur in a linear way.

Wasserman’s Thinking Operations
Raths, Wasserman, Jonas, and Rohstein (1967) suggest that thinking skills or operations pertain to any school subject and level and that these can be taught. Their classification system is still widely used. By focusing attention on the teaching of thinking operations, they helped educators go beyond teaching for memorization of information. This is a good place for student teacher to start. By planning lessons that include a procedural (thinking skill or process) objective, you can modify your teaching to incorporate thinking skills. Raths, Wasserman, and Wasserman ( 1978, pp. 7-29) describe the following thinking operations.

1. Comparing. In the operation of comparing, student look for similarities and differences. We may choose two items for comparison that have a close relationship (e.g. two musical instruments); alternatively, we can select items that have more subtle relationship (e.g. a train and a caterpillar). Step in comparing are (a) details are observed, (b) similarities are sought and sorted, (c) searching / sorting for differences, and (d) summarizing (in a list). Comparing activities lead students to additional insights and awareness. As a result of many experiences in making comparisons, student learn how to observe perceptively and compare before drawing conclusions.
2. Observing. When we are observing, we can make visual observations of data. Observing also can involve listening, touching, or smelling. The sense evidence used must be checked for accuracy. Students must be made aware of the possibility of distortion and thus false inference and misinterpretation. We want perceptiveness, acuity, and accuracy. Reporting is needed for the accuracy of observation to be checked. Observing should lead to more accurate data on which to base conclusions, and to greater understanding. Like any other skill, practice is required for proficiency.
3. Classifying. Classifying involves examining an assortment of items and sorting them into related groups. Each grouping is given a name. When they are classifying, students can process data mentally organize the systematically . Ability to classify helps use bring order into our lives. Classifying requires three steps : (a) examining data, (b) creating categories, and (c) placing items in categories. The first two require advanced mental activity and the third requires lower mental skills. We usually should avoid providing students with the categories so that students san exploit the full cognitive potential of this operation. Classification involves discovery of similarities and differences (as in comparing . Students should this cover that, though a number of groupings are possible, each must have internal consistency. Normally, only one principle at a time is operative as groupings are established.
4. Imagining. For imagining, students are asked to let their minds travel to whatever. vistas they can invent, to create freely and to exercise that part of the mind that often goes untapped. In imagining there is a release from rules and regulations and unbinding from data. Divergent thinking is promoted. Imagining leads to creations and inventions; it brings humor, joy, spontaneity, and beauty into our lives. A feeling of accomplishment and enhanced self-concept can result this rich inner resource.
5. Hypothesizing. For the hypothesizing operation, students are to come up with a variety of possible explanations ( hunches )for a question, problem, or situation. Hypnotizing involves identifying alternative possibilities and deciding which have the most credibility. High school students can be asked to go a step further to find ways of testing their hypotheses (which carries the operation to greater sophistication). Steps can be : (a) present the problem, (b) have students suggest ways to solve the problem, (c) have these ways considered and combined if appropriate, (d) ask students to anticipate what would happen if suggested solutions were tried, and (e) have students select a hypothesis. Hypothesizing helps free us from dogmatic assertions, from seeing life from only one perspective, and from “back or white” judgments. It lets students deal with problems in school learning and in their daily lives.
6. Criticizing. In the criticizing operation we ask students to “ evaluate”, make judgments,” and “ offer opinions” to sharpen their sense of what is desirable or undesirable. High or low quality, and significant or trivial. Students should specify the criteria (standards) they use in making judgments. They should identify the evidence on which their judgments were made. Criticizing lets students use a higher level of cognition and sharpen the thinking skills that will improve the quality of their lives.
7. Looking for assumptions. Making an assumptions means taking sometime for granted. In situations where a conclusion is drawn or a decision is being made, one or more assumptions enter. What we take for granted (or assume) may only be “ probably true “ or “ probably false. Through this operation students can learn to identify assumptions (ones made themselves or those made by others). Learning to differentiate between what is assumed to be true and what is observable fact at the heart of logical reasoning. Discrimination-scrutiny of assumptions – should occur. When students become skilled at identifying and examining assumptions, they will be less susceptible to propaganda, seductive advertising, and accepting experimental data as proof and collusions as “ right”. They will be less likely to leap to conclusions that are based on limited data and less impulsive in their actions. Studying and practicing this skill is particularly important.
8. Collecting and organizing data. The ability to collect and organize information requires several skills. : (a) locating information (deciding what are the proper references or appropriate sources, then locating those sources); (b) examining the data and selecting those that are relevant to the inquiry ; (c) developing procedures that allow data to be assembled; and finally, (d) organizing data. That is, once sources are identified and tapped, the information culled and gathered, data should be organized. It can be organized into essays, reports, research proposals, menus, almanacs, and bibliographies, to name a few possibilities. Organizing data systematically, logically, and coherently is a complex task and sharpens our ability to locate and comprehend information.
9. Summarizing. Summarizing requires condensing and stilling the core message from a piece of work. Student must be able to state, briefly and coherently, the main ideas of something they have heard, seen, or read. Summarizing should be concise but not miss the big ideas. It involves differentiating between what is important and what may be left out. Summarizing skills increase students abilities to understand. They develop the ability to discriminate and to discern the relevant from irrelevant, significant from insignificant, and consequential from trivial.
10. Coding. Codes communicate ideas in “ shorthand.” For example, an editor uses a short-hand code to communicate aspects of a manuscript to an author. As a thinking operation, coding is a shorthand system for pointing out thought patterns or expressions in the writings or speech of others. To illustrate, the code “ X” can be used identify extreme words and phrases such as “always , “ never,” everybody” or the best, “ the worst , “ or the only.” “ E-O” can be used to point out words and expressions of the “either – or” type. “Q” could be “ qualifying expressions. “ “V” can be used to designate “value statements. “ As students use coding to examine utterances of other, they become more responsible for what they say.
11. Interpreting. Interpreting involves explaining the meaning that an experience (story, event, picture, film, poem, graph, chart, joke, body language, etc) has for us. When we interpret, we put meaning into, and take meaning out of, a body of data. Our interpreting ability is dependent on how well we “read messages. “ We may misinterpret, which can get us into trouble. Sometimes we miss the meaning. Or we may generalize on insufficient evidence (going beyond the data to draw conclusions). Skillful interpretation increases meaning and understanding; continually misinterpreting severely handicaps the ability to understand and derive satisfaction fro, experiences.

Marzono’s core Thinking Approach

A second approach to teaching basic thinking operations, that of Marzono, Brandt Hughes, Jones, Presseisen, Rankin, and Suhor ( 1998), places core thinking skills into a shema or framework. It sets out eight major categories that are closely related to the the steps one might follow in problem solving. Within the master schema, there ware twenty –one-sub processes. With this framework, teacher can gradually understand how to use the skills.
Facts and information are the important raw materials for thinking. Knowing how, and having the skills to access and the use these to “ think,” is at least as important ! Marzono et al. suggest core thinking skills that occur in thinking processes. It should be noted the skills are not always sequenced exactly as in the pattern presented. These skills are out lined in the Hughes ( Hughes & Jones , 1998) model ( Figure : 14.1)

• Focusing. Focusing occurs as we (1) define the problem (what is it, who has it, examples of it , when is must be solved, and what makes it a problem) and (2) set goals (short-and long-term outcomes)
• Information gathering. Information gathering skills are brought to play as we (3) observe (pick relevant information) and (4) ask questions ( clarify issues and meanings).
• Remembering. Remembering takes place when we (5) encode (repeat information, use associations or mnemonics; new information to make it accessible when needed) and when we (6) recall (bring to consciousness, surface when, where, or how information was originally learned).
• Organizing . information is organized through (7) comparing ( identifying similarities and differences), (8) classifying (grouping, categorizing, or sequencing items), (9) ordering, and (10) representing (showing how elements are related).
• Analyzing. This information is analyzed and checked for accuracy as (11) attributes and components are identified (recognizing, putting parts into a whole), (12) relationships and patterns are determined (identifying interrelationships), (13) main ideas and (14) errors are identified.
• Generating. We may generate new ideas by (15) inferring (identifying what reasonably may be true). (16) predicting (anticipating what will likely happen), and (17) elaborating (adding details, explanations , and giving examples).
• Integrating. We integrate what we have learned and come to a solution through (18) summarizing (condensing, selecting, and combining) and (19) restructuring (combining new knowledge with old into something new).
• Evaluating. So we can evaluate, (20) criteria are established and the solution is (21) verified. (pp 69-114)

Abstract Graphic Concrete
Content of Increasing Difficulty
Establish Criteria
Verify
EVALUATING
Summarize
Restructure
INTEGRATING
Infer
Predict
Elaborate
GENERATING
Identify Attributes/components / Main Ideas
Identify Relationships/Patterns / Errors
ALAYZING
Compare
Classify
Represent
Order
ORGANIZING
Encode
Recall
REMEBERING
Observe
Question
GATHERING INFORMATION
Define problem
Set Goals
FOCUSING

Carolyn Hughes (Hughes & Jones, 1988) adds a useful visual view (figure 14.1) of the Marzono et al. skills. She thinks that content can be of increasing difficulty and that teachers should recognize that teaching / learning experiences (concrete, graphic, and abstract) should match learner readiness. Other approaches to core skills are Beyer’s (1984) decision-making steps, and Baron and Sternberg’s (1987) suggestions for selecting training skills programs.

Linking New Information to Prior Knowledge
Jones, Palincsar, Olge, and Carr ( 1987 ) observe that researchers believe “ information is stored in memory in ( interrelated) knowledge structures called schemata” (p.7). Learners draw on these memory banks as they reflect and make plans (p.7). This is apparent when a person links previous experience to the solution of a problem or when he compares previous attempts to solves a problem (p.8) – meta – cognition is involved. The ability to link new information with previous experience is effectuated by several factors. One’s perspective affects how new information is viewed (e.g. perspectives differ if a person views a proposed building site from an excavation – cost frame of reference rather than effect on environmental). Other variables relate to the character ties of the learner. Lack of information or organized information can limit a person’s ability to see patterns, chunk information, or derive analogies, and recognize similarities and differences between problem (p.9)

Research show that (1) success in learning situations often depends on the presence of specific previous knowledge, and (2) having prior knowledge is not enough if it cannot be accessed or if the learner cannot relate it to new information. It is important to build on what students know and the skills they have learned. Students may already know how to compare or paraphrase. For example, students must have learned. Students may already know how to compare or paraphrase. For example, students must have learned, or must learn, skills such as encoding, organizing, and retrieving information (Jones et, al. 1987, pp 9-10)

Jones et al (1987) contend that less able students many need explicit instruction in the use of thinking skills and that content and skills instruction should be adjunct to minimize interference. Instruction in strategic skill for the less able should have a strong content emphasis, and application to content and skills instruction should be adjunct to minimize interference. Instruction in strategic skills for the less able should be should have a strong content emphasis, and application to content areas should receive much attention. Instruction for other students should include thinking skills “ within the context of content courses” (p.17). stress the transfer of strategic skills to alternative content areas.



Current Issues and Teaching Approaches
The importance of Process
The California Assessment program includes processes in measuring science and mathematics. Distinguishing between content and process learning is similar to distinguishing between subject-centered and child – centered education. It can be said that process learning is learning for the future, and content learning is learning about those things already discovered, formulated, restructured, and deemed important.
Teachers need to provide for the learning of process. A major decision in teaching is deciding when to extract procedural knowledge from the whole act. The dilemma of whether to teach a process directly or in the context of (embedded in) the curriculum is a concern. Both approaches are appropriate at times, and both are essential. If process is taught directly, provision must be made for transfer.
It is increasingly apparent that teaching for thinking must be a top education priority if high school graduates are to take their place in our technically oriented society. Current school program are not adequate. Much more school time must be devoted to thinking skills and integration of these across the K – 12 curriculum. Too many students cannot respond effectively and critically to their environment.
An approach to the teaching of process you can use is shown in figure 14.2. Beware that teaching process is complicated and requires time and energy. In the long run, emphasis on processes can help achieve the more general goals of education. You will need to learn how to assess “ process” learning. If you resort to “ product” assessment only, the original purpose is defeated (see Baron & Sternberg, 1987, p. 224). Proper assessment requires the student to apply the process in a new context to see if transfer has occurred.
Processes normally include two or more thinking skills. All humans, by their very nature, are thinkers. As teachers, we want to help students think better, regardless of developmental stage. In addition to basic skills and facts, it is possible to identify higher order skills and advance knowledge, that is, content and process. A danger is overemphasis on replication and application and under emphasis on associative uses or webs of associations students have and the interpretive uses or translation of ideas and giving meaning.

BAGAN 4
Figure 14.2 Product – and Process – Oriented Classroom
The Product – Oriented Classroom
1. The teacher emphasizes. “What did you do?”
2. Tasks revolve around items of content
3. The answer is most important
4. The teacher believes there is a body of content
5. The teacher evaluates the product
6. The students “does”
7. The students often lacks an awareness of how s/he learns.
8. Learning takes place through factual knowledge acquisition
9. Problem – solving skills develop automatically
The Process – Oriented Classroom
1. The teacher also emphasizes. “ How did you do it?”
2. Tasks involve a “ process” of learning
3. The means of finding an answer is as important as the answer
4. The teacher recognizes that content is only one component of the learning process to cover
5. The teacher also evaluates the process
6. The student “does” and think about what s/he did
7. The student has a growing awareness of how s/h learns and can learn
8. Learning occurs when students work through a process in which knowledge is manipulated and restructured to reach insight
9. Problem – solving skills develop while learning content and reflection on the process occurs while working with content.

Education must move beyond memory to educating minds. This is what schooling should be about. An approach to the teaching of process is illustrated in Figure 14.3
There are three promising approaches to the teaching of thinking; stand – alone, embedding, and immersion. There is considerable material available to help you teach thinking skills through the stand – alone approach, for example, materials by Wasserman (1978). Over the years, hundreds of workshops have treated teaching for thinking, critical thinking, and creative thinking in a generic way. The embedding approach builds thinking skills into the regular school subjects, as does the immersion approach. In the former, but not in the latter, thinking skills are made explicit. Embedding is the most commonly accepted. For most students, it is necessary to be explicit. In general, teachers must decide when practice on specific skills is necessary for automaticity. Better understanding occurs when skills are extracted and studied in isolation as well as in context. Apparently, “ to be caught, it must be taught, “ and if transfer is to occur to other parts of a subject , to other subjects, and to life, this, too, must be “ taught”.
Not all basic knowledge should be taught before thinking skills. For instance, various forms of sequencing can be taught at an early age, and young learners can be taught and encouraged to develop their own sequencing system. The classroom should be interactive oriented to foster learning and applying thinking processes and skills.
Teachers need to make decisions about the timing and activities for learning explicit cognitive skills and see that these skills are transferred to various contexts. This is especially true with young learners and those who have difficulty with the processes. Very often, those who complain about achievement in schooling are actually complaining about the lack of use of these skills in higher education and the workplace. Paul (1990) believe the issue is complex. The teacher must make decisions to assure growth in both procedural knowledge and system use and meaning, or the atomistic versus the holistic dilemma.

Bagan 5
1. Provide an overview of the process
2. Demonstrate
3. Separate the steps Demo/ practice each
4. Relate parts in turn to the whole
5. Practice the whole in context
6. Transfer - practice is new contexts
7. Evaluate
8. Transfer to other subject / to life

Dialectical Thinking
Another level of thinking to include in your teaching is the dialectical. “ the first characteristic of dialectical thinking is that it places all the emphasis on change …. The second characteristic … is that is states that the way change takes place is through conflict and opposition” Rowan (2004). Using dialectical thinking is a bit like arguing with yourself. Barry and Rudinow (1994) believe that dialectical thinking is the ability to reflect critically on personal thinking and to reason sympathetically using a reference distinct from or even opposed to the frame of reference. This could be called reflective self-criticism. Though Barry and Rudinow’s suggestions are more appropriate for middle years and high school students, they can be adapted for elementary students.
The first step in the Barry and Rudinow plan is to pose a question for discussion, without presupposing a position. After preliminary discussion and clarification, students take positions they prepare to defend. They ask questions about the other positions and answer questions on their view. In teams with predetermined positions, various roles can be assigned and reassigned for practice. Then, each team prepares a defense to a position to which it was initially opposed. They exercise is recorded so students can review and critique their performances. Variations of this strategy can be created.

Affective and Cognitive Strategies
An excellent web site, The Critical Thinking Community (www.criticalthinking,org) gives a strategy list of thirty-five dimensions of critical thought. It shows how the list can be used in remodeled lesson plans that add the critical thinking dimension. The full list is at www.criticalthinking.org/resources/TRK12-strategy-list.shtml.

Problem Solving
Students face problems every day, whether with school work, peers, or at home. Students approach problems in four ways; (1) they ignore the problem and hope it will go away, (2) they ignore the problem and don’t care if it goes away, (3) they attempt to solve the problem as best they can even thought they do not have training in problem solving, or (4) they approach the problem in a sound and systematic away, having been taught how to do is. You can help students follow the fourth approach.
Problems solving requires the application of knowledge and skills to obtain a solution or achieve a goal. Transfer of learning to a new situation must occur. Problem solving has two aspect; recalling or acquiring the information needed to solve a problem, and following an effective problem- solving procedure.
At on time it wash thought that problem solving should follow a sequence of problem definition, suggesting possible causes of the problem (hypotheses)., and testing each hypothesis. The modern approach is based on what has been learned about how people process information. Expert problem solvers do not begin by suggesting a large number of hypotheses and then testing each one. First they narrow the problem down by deciding the key features of the problem and relating these to information they have at their fingertips or can look up. Then they pick one or a few hypotheses for testing. This approach is time saving and works well because experts do not spend time investigating low-probability hypotheses. The approach requires rapid and accurate problem definition and pattern recognition Students can be taught how to seek patterns, strategies, and thinking skills they can use to solve problems.
Sternberg (1990) emphasizes that students should discover problems for themselves. Life problems are not well structured, so application of rigid steps often does not work. School problems are usually decontextualized . Problem - solving steps may work for text problems but not “real” ones. Students who care about a problem, because it is theirs, are motivated to face it. Schools normally stop short of being practical; it is important to provide for transfer to life. Sternberg emphasizes that students must be taught how to plan to solve problems and the thinking skills to use.
Begin by having students learn problem-solving steps. When you do this, you help them discover how they like to represent problem-some can just think of the key features, others need to write these down, and others need a visual representation. While we should learn from experience, we often are prisoners of our experiences. Students can learn from experience, to break the chains of strive for novelty. Real-life problems rarely have a single solution, so students should guard against a “ one – right - answer” expectation. At times a problem can be set aside for a while, after incubating, the answer may seem to “ jump out.” Rothstein (1990) suggests things you can do to help students improve their problem their problem – solving ability.
• Provide a climate that allows risk taking. Encourage students to look at problems creatively and provide incubation time. Be accepting and sensitive to students feelings.
• Show students how to define the problem. A problem that is well defined is “ half-start to solve it. Help them learn to seek the essential features of the problem
• Teach students how to do problem analysis. They should learn to differentiate between essential and nonessential information. Have them ask what materials they have to work with and how these can be used to solve the problem.
• Have students learn to generate hypotheses. They should not seek a hypothesis prematurely. Provide instruction and practice in the important skill of brainstorming.
• Show students how to evaluate each hypothesis. Students should learn not to jump to conclusions. Have them set criteria for evaluating hypotheses and record the implications or consequences of several hypotheses. Then have them select the best or combine hypotheses.
• Teach students to recognize factors that affect problem solving. Factor that influence problem – solving- ability are acquiring the necessary information, defining the problem, and letting the problem incubate.
• Show students how to use analogies. Encourage students to seek cases that are similar to their problem and the solutions that were successful for these. This reduces that number of errors that will be made and the time needed to solve a new problem.
• Have students practice solving problems and provide feedback. They should be encouraged while they are practicing, and feedback should focus on the problem-solving process used rather than getting “ the right answer” (pp 268-270).
Problem – based learning is examined further later in this chapter

Thinking and Decision making
Decision making involves making a selection from among alternatives. It is a process (like problem solving, conceptualizing, and reflective thinking) that involves several thinking skills. Decision making usually involves (1) stating the desired goal or condition; (2) starting the obstacles; (3) identifying alternatives for overcoming each obstacle; (4) examining alternatives in terms of resources needed and constraints to their use; (5) ranking alternatives in terms of probable consequences; and (6) choosing the best alternative.

Using Question to Encourage Thinking
Questioning techniques were discussed in Chapter 8. Questions can be categorized into a hierarchy from low-level (facts and comprehension) through application to high – level (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). Emphasis on higher- cognitive questions is more effective, particularly for students of average and high ability, while emphasis on fact questions is effective in mastery of basic skills (particularly for lower-ability students). Teacher often emphasize closed, single-right-answer, low-level-question, when emphasis on open-ended, higher-cognitive-level questions would be more effective. You learned how the use of probes and redirects can lead to higher – level thinking and that teacher acceptance of student ideas is positively correlated with student learning gains. Wait time of at least three second is critical, particularly for higher-level question. Students should be encouraged to responds, and responses should be acknowledge, and praise should be used specifically and discriminately. The quality of teacher questioning, use of encouragement , and involvement and acceptance of students are important. The way you respond during question and answer affects whether thinking skills are being developed. Students should feel accepted, able to take risks; and using open-ended question and sufficient wait time encourages thinking.
Examples of questions that encourage thinking are provided by King (1990). These questions and other ideas on encouraging thinking are available at the University of Texas at Austin’s Division of instructional Information and Assessment web site, www.utexas.edu/academic/diia/gsi/coursededign/advanced.php.
• How would you use … to … ?
• What is a new example of …?
• Explain why …
• What do you think would happen if …?
• What do you think would happen if …?
• What is the difference between …. And … ?
• How are … and … similar … ?
• What is a possible solution to the problem of … ?
• What is a possible solution to the problem of … ?
• What conclusions can you draw about … ?
• How does … affect … ?
• In your opinion, which is best … ? why?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of … ?
• Do you agree / disagree with this statement … ?
• How is … related to … that we studied … ?

Symptoms present in classrooms with little encouragement for student thinking are :
• Extreme impulsiveness ( emphasis is on doing, without much thinking behind it)
• Over dependency ( “ Tell me what to do, teacher”)
• Dogmatic assertions ( “Don’t confuse me with data, my mind is made up”)
• Inability to apply learned principles to new situations (What an I s’pozed to do here?”)
• Over-anti-intellectualism (It’s your job to tell us what to do”)
Traditional expository teaching, characterized by teacher-dominated explaining, telling how,, and showing, makes students passive rather than active. Learned need to be involved in acquiring knowledge. Provide acceptance, support, probes, and encouragement to think. Learning that emphasizes thinking is fragile, involving emotions, pressures, and the self-concept of students, dynamics of the class group, and the attitudes of the teacher.

Teaching for Thinking and Transfer
One of the most debated issues in the teaching of thinking is transfer. If you want transfer, teach for it. It should be emphasized in both the set and closure of a lesson and used gradually in more context until it is applied in contexts in which learners themselves seek transfer from previous learning.
Acquisition of thinking or processes includes declarative knowledge. Like a concept, the meaning of a process is always under construction. Thinking processes can even be taught to very young children through activity-oriented classroom that have many opportunities for idea construction. Unfortunately, a recent study of first graders doing reading seatwork found that getting an activity done was more important than making sense of what were doing. This suggest that teachers should emphasize the understanding and use of thinking skills.

Evaluation and Thinking
Not only should thinking skills be taught directly, they also should be part of evaluations. That is, if we want students to know and be able to transfer the use of specific thinking skills to new contexts, this must be part of the “reward system.” Marks should be specifically allocated for how students use thinking skills in the subject they are studying (not just for recall of information or “ getting the right answer”). If student progress using thinking processes and skills is not part of assessment, learning may degenerate to recall of content. The lowest level of evaluation is repeating a thinking skill in its simplest form and in a context already used. To extend evaluation, a skill must be evaluated as it is used in a slightly different context. Many approaches are necessary : written and oral, descriptions, recordings, broad and narrow, standardized, and self monitoring.
Steps that you cam follow when planning to teach a thinking skill are illustrated in Figure 14.4 on page 460.

Action Research
We believe that most teachers, at all ages and grade levels, are concerned about teaching for thinking. Pre – or inservice teachers can be helped to structure their work in this direction. Emphasize professional development and collaborative action research in which you begin with a structured position and, through an interactive and reflective approach, are led to a refinement of professional judgment. A research approach to development is various cultures. Related learning from research in early childhood, middle years, secondary, and adult education can provide a wealth of background. For instance, reading itself can be considered a higher-order thinking skill.

Bagan 6
1. Determine skill label and definition
2. Determine rules or steps in using the skill
3. Determine use of the skill the specific content being studied
4. Determine how you will model explain and demonstrate the skill
5. Determine how guided practice and independent practice will be provided
6. Determine how student will be evaluated
7. Determine how transfer to other part of the subject or other subject will be done
8. Determine how transfer to student present or future out of school live will be initiated
Step in Planning to Teach a Thinking Skill






Critical and creative Thinking
Critical Thinking
Few educators …. Oppose the idea of getting students to think more critically …. Yet rhetoric outstrips practice. ( case & Wright 1999, p. 197)

You want to help your students become good thinkers, people who think critically. Critical thinking, which many agree involves the use of skills, is very cerebral thing. It should not be misconstrued that the skills are to be used in a mechanistic way. Having students acquire critical thinking capability needs to be a prime objective of all teachers, not something to be covered if and when the subject matter of the curriculum or textbook has been covered (Case & Wright, 1999, p.179). To become critical thinkers, students need instruction on what is involved in doing critical thinking, interesting content, opportunity to practice it, and assessments of their attempts at critical thinking.

What is Critical Thinking?
What is critical thinking? There is disagreement about what qualifies as critical thinking. Most authorities agree that critical thinking involves abilities, background concepts and information, and certain disposition. Case and Wright (1999) ask “ Of what values in become a better thinker is there ins asking students to assess the pro and con arguments on an issue if they are profoundly unaware of the standards they should use in critiquing competing pieces of evidence? “ ( p.181). while most think dispositions (attitudes) and tools (Skills) are involved, some, including McPeck (1990) believe there are no general abilities. It can be argued, however, that there are dispositions and tools can be learned and transferred in a way that recognizes the uniqueness of disciplines, issues, or situations.
Scriven and Paul (1996) say that critical thinking is “ The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying , analyzing, synthesizing, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. “ Earlier, Norris (1985) said, “ Critical thinking is deciding rationally what no to believe.” Critical thinking can be summarized as “ the ability to think about one’s thinking so as to recognize its strength and weaknesses and, as a result, redo and improve the thinking in improved judgments” (Beyer, 1995, p.8). whatever the definition, the purpose is to, through questioning and inquiry while being sensitive to context, achieve understanding, evaluate points of view, and solve problems. The process of critical thinking is fundamental to education. For our purposes, we define critical thinking as fundamental to education. For our purposes, we define critical thinking as fair-mindedly interpreting, analyzing, or evaluating information, arguments, or experiences with a set of reflective attitudes, skills, and abilities to guide our thoughts, beliefs, and actions. In short, critical thinking involves evaluating the credibility of information.

Critical Thinking Disposition and Attitudes
Being able to think critically begins with an attitude of being disposed to consider, in a thoughtful and perceptive way, the problems and subjects of aspects of life. When we include critical thinking in schooling, we must emphasize, model, and encourage critical thinking dispositions. You can help your students develop critical thinking abilities by teaching them how to objectively and open mindedly seek answer to questions and problems, and teaching them how investigate the causes of events. You can model and promote intellectual honesty, even thought evidence challenges personally cherished beliefs. Students need to learn the importance of flexibility and have, but not be inhibited by, healthy skepticism until adequate evidence is surfaced. A patient, persistent, and systematic approach to arriving at conclusions and resolving differences needs to be valued, as does the attitude of respect for other points of view after listening carefully to those views.

Procedure and Skills
Authorities disagree about what is involved in critical thinking and when, where, and how it should be taught. We believe that critical thinking should be taught in both a generic and a subject – specific sense. It should not be taught in isolation, whether as a stand – alone topic or as part a discipline, without providing for transfer – that’s the important thing. If students –alone topic or as part a discipline, without providing for transfer – that’s the important thing. If students practice critical thinking, content is always required – whether from a school subject or some other source. If, for example, it is taught as part of social studies, the teacher needs to help students bridge to, for example, science, English, and other subjects, critical thinking in social studies is like critical thinking in science, is like critical thinking in solving a community issue, is like making a meaningful decision in a business, and is like making an appropriate choice about a personal quandary. Transfer may not occur unless you deliberately choice about a personal quandary. Transfer may not occur unless you deliberately point out transfer possibilities and have students acquire the disposition to seek transfer to new situations.
Sternberg (1985) believes that teaching for critical thinking, “ as it usually is done, inadequately prepares students for the kinds of problems they will face in everyday life “ (p.277). H adds, “ good thinking in one academic are does not guarantee good thinking in another.” His solution is to have programs that sample a variety of content areas and thinking skills in a way that is “ true to the way problems appear in our everyday lives”(p.278). critical thinking procedures and skills can be taught! Students need to practice this and, importantly, to practice discovering problems for themselves. Beyer’s (1984) list of producers may well have relevance today.
1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims
2. Determining the reliability of a claim or source
3. Determining the accuracy of a statement
4. Distinguishing between warranted or unwarranted claims
5. Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information, claims, or arguments
6. Detecting biases
7. Identifying stated and unstated assumptions
8. Identifying ambiguous or equivocal claims or arguments
9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
10. Determining the strength of an argument (p.557)

Paul and elder (2001) describe intellectual traits that help critical thinking intellectual humility, courage, empathy, autonomy, integrity, perseverance, confidence in reason, and fair- mindedness. Critical thinking, it can be argued, requires a set of dispositions ( or attitudes ) and specific process and skills. These dispositions need to be taught ( refer to Chapter 4).
The ability to think critically involves behavior that can be learned. One can examine the problem, identify the key issues, and ask the following question. Are there any underlying assumptions? What generalizations can be safely made? What credible sources might shed light on the problem ? what have we learned about the problem? What kinds of data are relevant? How adequate is the data? Is data presented in a biased or distorted way? How consistent and relevant is our argumentation ? what can we do to ensure that personal bias does not affect what we do? What conclusions and possible solutions can be posed? What are the pros and cons of each potential solution. Which solution or what combination of solution appears best? How can we test the solution or combination of solutions? If the test is not passed, what can be done to arrive at another possible solution to be tested?

Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking
Ensures that students thinking creatively

Encourages creative potential of students, welcome novel and imaginative responses; use divergent approaches; models creativity and allows open-ended expression, experiential, inductive, and hands-on approaches.
Creativity not apparently welcomed; reliance on standard information; only “ Right” answers welcome; little attempt to encourage novel, imaginative, and creative ideas.

Creativity is not a single process. Thought we recognize and value creative thinking it defies precise description. Creative thinking can be viewed as forming new combinations of ideas to fulfill a need or as thinking In a way that produces original and appropriate result. Creativity has been linked to divergent thinking and originality of thought or execution. Although something can be creative (original) for an individual, it need be original to mankind. Creativity is found in all areas of life and is not limited to the arts. To geniuses, or to the talented. Creative thinking should be structured into the curriculum and encouraged through open-ended challenges.


Teaching for Creativity
Every student has creative potential. Creativity can conflict with established rules, procedures , and patterns, and what is “correct.” When you promote creativity, expect a mixture of novel, imaginative, and valuable answers, and also answers that may seem silly or bizarre. Let students think, solve problems, and use divergent ideas.
Teaching for creativity includes teaching thinking skills. Creativity has long been known to be the highest from of mental functioning. Some instructional strategies are more effective than others in producing creative responses in students. As never before, we need to help students develop creative thinking and feeling skills. Students who have had ample opportunity to use their creative talents will likely use them well throughout their lives. Barriers to creative thinking often are in student’s minds; those who are intelligent but not very creative may be disinclined to be imaginative. The barriers may be due to social fears, fear of being wrong, lack of confidence, or the belief that they are not creative.
Model creativity and provide ample opportunity for creative expression by allowing students to express themselves in an open-ended manner and to seek different ways to do something or solve problems. Fear of failure or looking foolish limits creativity. Students must not feel their answers will lower their grades; trying new things should be praised, not suppressed. Small-group problem solving or decision making can promote creativity. Teach brainstorming and have students use it. Students also should be taught constructive disagreement, and that ideas and procedures can be challenged, but people and personalities must not be attacked.

Rothstein (1990) provides suggestions for teaching for creativity
• Encourage students to explore things in their environment. Have them use all their senses and discover the messages sent through each and combinations of senses. Have them describe things they find interesting. Have them discover how to “look at things with fresh eyes.”
• Provide schools time to encourage creativity. Structure activities or exercises that require originality or problem solving. Have students suggest new uses, for old things. Make frequent use of brainstorming and creative activities. Let them know that creativity is sought.
• Encourage students to become interested in many things. Vary activities, take students on field trips, bring in speakers, and use media to help students “stretch their minds.”
• Help students believe they can learn to become more creative. Few inventors, scientists, or artists were very creative at first. Reward students who show evidence of creativity, and reward improvement.
• Teach students what is involved in creativity. Help them learn creativity is influenced by the types, number, and originality of alternatives produced. Train students to use specific thinking skills and inquiry and problem-solving processes and how to transfer knowledge of these into new situations.
• Encourage students to acquire information and use it to be creative. Show students how knowledge can be used to create alternatives, analogies, or to make inferences (p.274).

You can help students increase their creative talents by helping them develop met cognitive talents. For example, teach students how to generate questions about the material studied or ask them to propose activities. Participation helps them take control of learning. They can learn to explore things from a variety of perspectives and decide the consequences of the alternatives generated. Tell them that statements (or thoughts) such as “ I can “t” or “I don’t know how” or “I’m too slow” are not permitted, students can share ideas with peers and have these paraphrased. This teaches them to become better listeners, clarifies thinking, and fosters fresh ideas. Role playing and simulations can be used. Encourage students to become more hypothetical. Have them assume a stance or position with which they do not agree. Journals help students bring their thoughts together and translate and translate them into constructive action. This can occur when students look back at what happened, how they reacted, decide how they could have reacted, and what they will do in the future.
Honig (2001) suggests ways encourage creativity in young children.



1. Breaking up old ideas through encouraging new ideas and making children comfortable with ambiguity
2. Making new connections through the creative use of recycled materials such as paper rolls and pipe cleaners
3. Enlarging the limits of knowledge through taking apart old or broken object such as hair dryers and battery – operated toys to see how they work.
4. Allowing the onset of wonderful ideas through encouraging children to move about the classroom in their own creative ways. (p.37)

The way the teacher behaves and runs the classroom is at the core of teaching for both creative and critical thinking. The teacher needs to listen to, and value, students’ ideas and opinions. The teacher should encourage students to value each other’s thoughts an beliefs. Teachers must be flexible and not insist on conformity at all times. Open minded discussion is important – students need to discuss their thinking, viewpoints, and attempts at analysis. They need to make decisions, examine alternatives, and act in accord with their decisions. Cooperative learning procedures can be used to advantage.
Teaching your students to think critically and creatively is demanding. Do you really need to know and understand the theory to be effective? Did the specific operations of classifying, organizing, and the like work? You may say, “ I really want my students to think about what I teach. “ How do you achieve this? How does this ideal depend on planning and instructional skills? Do you see the teacher as a facilitator? How can the structures suggested in this text help you? Try the methods and reflect on your experience.
A data collection instrument is provided in Appendix 14.1 for your use when teaching for thinking as a target in microteaching or classroom lessons. You can use this instrument to help you analyze the cases that follow. Your instructor may pose specific questions for your response.

Thinking
Assumptions about facts
Mr. Golstein has decided that he was going to teach certain thinking processes and skills directly. To date he had taught classifying, coding, and comparing and contrasting. To help his students develop critical thinking capability he decided to teach his students to be sensitive to the difference between statements or fact and assumptions.
Two container of potato chips were displayed on Mr. Goldstein’s desk. Students noticed these as they entered the room, wondering what he was up today. One container was a large, puffed-up plastic bag and the other was a sealed cylinder one-quarter the size of the bag. “which of these contains more?” be asked. Students found out that the large container held 150 grams and the smaller container actually held 200 grams. They had assumed the large container held more.
“some statements are clearly facts, “ he said “ For example, grass is generally green in the summer; and there are 5,280 feet in a mile. But, statements like it’s not going to rain for another three weeks’ or ‘Sam is good dancer because he was born in Jamaica’ are assumption. An assumption is a statement that is not supported, or not fully supported by evidence. “ He provided a few more examples that contrasted facts and assumptions. Next, he provided a handout that contained twelve statement. Students were asked to label those statements that were facts and those that were assumptions. Then, he divided the class into buzz groups of six to try to arrive at consensus on the issue of whether disposable containers should be used for food products. He said, “ As you debate this issue, be very sensitive about your statements. If you think a statements is a fact, say so, if you are aware that it is an assumption, point this out. I will give you a signal when you have about ten minutes left. At this signal, discuss the implications of making decisions or recommendations based on assumptions.” Student reported and the he asked them to look for assumption not only in science but also I other subjects, particularly, social studies, English, and consumer students.






Problem Based Learning
Problem – Based – Learning
Skilled and effective approach to problem – based learning
Skilled at setting up student – centered problem – based learning approach; teacher is facilitator, ensuring that students explore problems themselves; carefully selects problem as focus of learning; students develop problem-solving skills as they direct their learning; meaningful information provided or suggested.
Little or no student-centered approach; teacher controls and dominates the learning process; problems selected are unauthentic an not challenging; student learn few meaningful skills; information provided is uninteresting or inadequate.
The interviewer handed the students a battery, a wire, and a light bulb and asked if they could make the bulb light. They could not. This might not be alarming if the students were fourth graders, but they were not. The students were clothed in caps and gowns as they prepared to graduate from Harvard and MIT. (Bracey, 1998)

This is the opening of Minds of Our Own, a tree – part videotape series on our misconceptions about how the word works. The key idea “ Is that children bring to the classroom profoundly held ideas about how the word works and these ideas are incredibly resistant to change, “ but ‘ our pedagogy does not equip teachers to teach for understanding and then detect misunderstanding though assessment” ( Bracey, 1998, p. 328). The reason the Harvard and MIT students could not solve the light bulb problem is similar to why many educators find it difficult to teach thinking, inquiry, and problem solving. We have preconceptions about how things should be. Bracey provides a revealing example of a “ friend who doesn’t like to boil water in a microwave oven because the water is never hot enough (for her, equals bubbles rising, not a set temperature)” (p.329)
Stressing the important of problem – solving skills is not new. Students can be taught the procedures and processes of thinking and to recognize, define, and go about solving open-ended problems. They can learn to be fluent, flexible, and original in generating ideas – creativity can be learned by practicing it. Techniques of forecasting too, can learned. These involve defining and solving future – oriented problems. You can teach habits of mind and the tools students can use to cope with the present and the future.

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
As you may have surmised, problem –based learning is any learning situation in which the problem drives the learning. Students discover they need the information or skills to solve a problem. To do this, they need to know how to access the information and how to use critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Problem-based learning is a student-centered method in which learners become increasingly independent of the teacher, who suggests educational materials and provides guidance (SIU, 2002). The teacher’s function is to encourage, keep students on track, provide information or suggest sources of information, and be a fellow learner ( Aspy, Aspy, & Quiny, 1993)

PBL, which values active learning, has the following characteristic:
• It is student centered
• Learning occurs in small student groups
• Teachers are facilitators or guides
• Problems are the organizing focus and stimulus for learning
• Problems are a vehicle for the development of problem-solving skills
• New information is acquired through self-directed learning (SIU, 2002)

Why Use Problem – Based Learning?
The argument posed in the southern Illinois School of Medicine web site is that traditional schooling-kindergarten through medical school-leaves students disenchanted and bored with their education. Much of what was memorized is soon forgotten and what is remembered is hard to apply to tasks and problems. Many students can’t reason effectively and are unable to take responsibility for their education. Many do not collaborate well with others. Education has been “an imposed set rituals with little relevance to the ‘real world’.”
Through PBL, traditional teacher and student roles change. Students assume more responsibility and so are better motivated with more feelings of accomplishment, : setting the pattern for them to become successful lifelong learners” They become” better practitioners of their profession” (MCLI, 2001). Learning becomes relevant and authentic, occurs in ways similar to how it will be used in the future, and higher-order thinking is promoted.

How Does Problem-Based-Learning Work?
PBL is the kind of classroom organizations that support a constructionist approach (NCREL, 2002. Savoie and Hughes (1994) used a process to initiate a problem - based experience for students
The process of PBL has students, in groups, confront a problem. They organized prior knowledge and try to discover the nature of the problem. Questions may be posed about what they do not understands. They then formulate a plan for solving the problem and decide the resources needed. Following this, they start to gather information with which to work to solve the problem. Potential solutions are generated. The pros and cons of each solution are considered, and a solution, or a combination of solutions, is selected to be tested. A data sheet you can use for problem – based learning is provided in Appendix 14.2

Problem – Based Learning
She explained that this creature and many others were in danger because there was so little natural grassland left. They needed whole areas of undisturbed prairie if they were to survive. She said she had a special problem she wanted the whole class to think about. How could creatures like the burrowing owl be saved from extinction?
First student defined the problem. How could large sections of undisturbed natural grassland be set aside for creatures like the the burrowing owl? They decided they would need to know many things, such as what creatures were threatened, what possibilities for undisturbed environment existed, what agencies could help, what could they do to get people thinking about the issue, and what being done already. They decided they should from teams and each should be in charge of a particular aspect of the problem.
They had to do and lots to learn. Ms. Forsyth smiled at their energy and enthusiasm. She fold Mr. Duszik she had started in her career as a student in the class of a teacher who inspired them with real problems.

Summary
School have typically neglected teaching for thinking, and transfer of thinking operations from one subject to another and to life. Emphasis has been on information acquisition and low-level content. Student need to do more than learn information. Thinking skills and processes needed to be learned, as does the ability to use these in a variety of contexts. If teaching and learning are to be authentic, teachers need to teach for thinking. Some educators see stand-alone thinking skills or process learning as ineffective – believing that thinking skills are discipline specific and little transfer, if any, will occur. Other say a context is always required, but thinking skills are generic and teaching for transfer can occur.
If learning is orientated toward discovery of personal meaning and solving problems, each student, no matter his or her ability or background, tries to make sense of knowledge and experience, and uses his or her skills to do so. The students is constructing meaning. Your classroom can be supportive community for learning and provide a caring environment that encourages constructive risk taking tempered by creative, critical thinking during individual and group work.
What should schooling accomplish? Philosophers and educational theorists have debated this for decades. Authentic, active, collaborative, problem – based learning is the direction proposed by many contemporary theorists.

Activities
1. You and your subject group choose a thinking skill, analyze it, and plan the step to teach it
2. In subject groups, examine lesson plans that you have content based. Redesign your lesson plans to be : (a) process based rather than product based; and (b) suing the core thinking skills (presented in this chapter)
3. Consider a lesson in school or college in which you were taught, or encouraged, to think. Compare your reflections with the creative and critical thinking charts in this text
4. Plan a lesson In your subject area with the subjective of teaching a thinking skill, which can be demonstrated to the class.
5. Choose a lesson plan you have previously prepared. Revise it to include the teaching of a thinking skill and to encourage the learning of a disposition or attitude.
6. Brainstorm examples of topics that could be discussed using the dialectic model
7. Meet subject groups. (a) Brainstorm lists of the most important creative and critical thinking skills that apply to your subject. (b) Indicate those skills that are essential to your subject
8. Research constructionist teaching or review the section in this text. List the main similarities between constructionist teaching and problem based learning.
9. Think of problems you have solved outside of school using the PBL model. Describe what you did. Take a “traditional “ lesson you have taught. Redesign it using a PBL approach.
10. What would you consider the advantages and disadvantages of a PBL approach in your discipline?